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Click here to sign up. Download Free PDF. Kris Swank. A short summary of this paper. The ancient Olympic Games were held every four years from at least B. The games lasted about five days, during which time there were religious ceremonies, social events, and parades of the champions where the athletes were cheered by adoring mobs. During the thirty days prior to the games, the athletes trained in a special gymnasium at Olympia. The centre city of a large metropolitan centre was treated as the referent group.

The Southern location was added to the model in step 2 non-Southern states served as the referent group. Results Descriptive statistics for enacted discrimination and felt stigma Table 1 offers the descriptive statistics of enacted discrimination and felt stigma items.

As a whole, felt stigma was more common than enacted discrimination suggesting that implied heterosexism is more widespread than overt heterosexism. Cases of recent enacted stigma are relatively rare in this study, while most participants confronted the looming stress of threatened heterosexism.

In the lifetime measures, almost nobody escaped heterosexist threats, and roughly two out of five have had their property damaged and over one-third had been chased or denied employment since 16 years old.

While felt stigmatization was common for a large segment of the sample, its presence was not a universal norm.

Place variables and felt stigma-enacted discrimination Location-based differences in exposure to the minority stressors of stigma and discrim- ination are presented in Table 2. When exploring the proportion of variance explained by all of the variables, the R2 and 1R2 for the full model were significant in every case Block 2.

This suggests that the spatial and control variables together accounted for at least 9. Hierarchical regressions for regional variables, controls and felt stigma-enacted discrimination outcomes. Control variables were included in the final model, but their results are not shown. Table 3. Hierarchical regressions for regional variables, controls and community outcomes. Place variables and psychological connectedness to the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender community Results of tests for location differences in feelings of connectedness to an LGB community are presented in Table 3.

Discussion This study addressed possible relationships between location of residency and exposure to minority stress. Specifically, we analysed that the ways living in different types of com- munities were connected to four elements of the experience of minority stress among self-identified LGB individuals: felt stigma, enacted discrimination — short and long terms — and feelings of connectedness to an LGB community.

In several instances, results indicated a greater prevalence of minority stress in small towns and rural settings compared with urban environments. Specifically, rural and small-town LGBs were more likely to endure a history of subtle discrimina- tion and rural individuals encountered more lifetime discrimination.

Conversely, rural and small-town LGBs did not report significantly higher levels of recent discrimination. This difference in significance for lifetime and recent levels of discrimination could be due to an improvement in rural conditions in the past decades or it could be an artefact of methodological problems like too small of a sample size or focusing on the wrong types of discrimination.

Clearly, longitudinal data are required to address a relative improvement for rural participants over time. Rural LGBs not only reported greater stigma, but also were more isolated and disconnected from communities that may provide affirmation of their sexual identities, as evidenced by lower levels of community connectedness among Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 04 September rural-living LGBs compared with urban dwelling LGBs.

This again supports the argument that centre cities may partially insulate LGBs from some of the felt stigma and isolation that rural communities impose upon sexual minorities. Dwelling in mid-sized cities and the suburbs was not associated with any aspect of minority stress. Although these locations displayed more minority stress than their centre- city counterparts, these differences were not substantial or statistically significant. On the other hand, a Southern residency presented several important ramifications for LGBs.

Importantly, Southerners reported higher levels of recent and lifetime enacted discrimi- nation and less connection to the LGB community. These findings clearly suggest that the South is a harsher place for sexual minorities than other regions of the United States. In most cases, the effects of control variables on minority stress were not significant.

However, gender occasionally mattered, as gay and bisexual men dealt with more enacted discrimination in their lifetime than lesbian and bisexual women. Further, higher income was associated with fewer experiences of felt or long-term discrimination and greater connections to the LGB community. This sug- gests that gay and bisexual men and poorer sexual minorities might be targeted more for discrimination and may have less of the vital resources that assist in the avoidance of dis- crimination.

Age and when people were exposed to discrimination had opposite directions in this study. Younger sexual minorities experienced more recent discrimination, but older sexual minorities experienced a larger amount of lifetime discrimination.

The link between older age and lifetime discrimination suggests that older individuals may not experience active discrimination, but they may have lived through years when homophobia and het- erosexism were more explicit, rampant and publicly condoned. Further, older LGBs had greater opportunity to be exposed to discrimination, given they have lived more years since age 16 than younger LGBs.

Thus, the association between age and long-term dis- crimination should not be interpreted beyond its role as a control variable in the present analyses. Although we did not examine indicators of LGB health in this study, our findings have significant implications for the larger body of literature examining the connection between minority stress and health. Specifically, rural geographic location represents an important risk factor for increased exposure to some forms of minority stress beyond other disadvan- taged social statuses e.

Thus, geographic location needs to be considered in larger models of social stress and minority stress due to its poten- tial implications for the overarching relationship between stress and health among sexual minorities see Meyer et al. Limitations These findings should be interpreted in the light of several study limitations. Some of the biggest measurement limitations could be found in the ability of respondents to detect, label and remember discriminatory experiences. Although some behaviours are considered obviously discriminatory to all observers, some of most insidious discrimi- natory actions transpire in ambiguous or confusing situations e.

When determining whether an action is discriminatory or not, people often reflect upon a long list of questions: Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 04 September Who is doing the discrimination? Is the behaviour considered harmful and intentional? Is the possible discriminator a member of a respected or disliked group? Does the respon- dent think the victim deserves the discrimination? Clearly, the answers to such questions are sometimes dependent on the characteristics of individual observers, so it would be safe to assume that the measures of felt and enacted discrimination could have prob- lems with reliability and validity.

Future research should include a wider range of stress measures, including both subjective and objective methods. Furthermore, we used shortened measures of minority stress in order to reduce participant burden and increase the feasibility of the online survey. Future studies should be conducted to replicate our findings using measures that have more extensive histories of psychometric soundness. People may also differ in their definitions of what is rural or where the boundaries of centre cities and suburbs begin or end in large metropolitan areas.

Also, because place of residency is not always constant, a measure of current residency may not reflect the amount of exposure to minority stress in previous locations. Accordingly, some people may have been classified as urban, small town or rural, although the discrimination could have occurred elsewhere e.

This study would also have been improved if we included a measure that distinguished bisexuals from lesbians and gays. Although online surveys offered some advantages in the study of LGB populations, they are not without limitations.

For example, our choice of listservs generated a higher proportion of respondents from some states Kentucky and Ohio. The use of an Internet- based survey may introduce other sorts of selection bias since computer usage can vary by age, social class and race.

This study had a low percentage of African Americans and high percentage of Native Americans. Likewise, the use of Internet sources can underestimate the proportion of sexual minorities who are more concealed about their sexual orienta- tion.

Also, the use of listservs might influence the findings on community connectedness because everyone in the sample was at least connected to other LGBs through an elec- tronic network. The smaller sample size has also some limitations. With a larger number of participants, we could have tested for interaction effects between our spatial factors, as the cell size was too small to permit statistical power to detect if rural or small-town Southerners significantly differed from metropolitan Southerners.

We do not consider this to be surprising; many factors in addition to location may affect exposure to minority stress that are not included in this study. As a result, small to moderate yet statistically significant differences in minority stress exposure are of practi- cal significance, especially given that many of these differences remained significant after Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 04 September controlling for demographic and Socio-Economic Statuses SES factors.

Suggesting some possible extraneous factors, rural states produced more lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender LGBT hate crimes until one controls for poverty rates and the presence of gay—lesbian community centres Van Dyke et al.

By being the first study to systematically examine the urban—rural continuum and exposure to minority stress, this study provides new insights into the relationship between the geo- graphical location and the lives of sexual minorities. These findings certainly suggest that future research should interrogate some of the common assumptions about rural locations as toxic spaces for LGBs and urbanity as an idealised space for LGBs; our results suggest a more complicated picture.

In addition, the assumption that the South provides a particu- larly hostile environment for LGBs was mostly supported, highlighting yet another regional risk factor for minority stress that future research should continue to investigate. Acknowledgements The authors thank Dr. Bernadette Barton, Michele Fiore and Jessica Roe for their assistance in the gathering of data for this study.

Note 1. His sexuality pub- lications explore the relationship between social hierarchies and sexual satisfaction for women as well as sexual prejudice among rural residents. David M. His research focuses on how stigma, prejudice and discrimination constitute minority stress and, as a result, affect the health and well-being of marginalised individuals. He received his Ph. She also Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 04 September works as a practicing clinical psychologist specialising in sexuality, LGBTQ issues, gender identity and trauma recovery.

References Adamczyk, A. Shaping attitudes about homosexuality: The role of religion and cultural context. Social Science Research, 38, — Barton, B. Journal of Homosexuality, 57, — Bell, D. Queer country: Rural lesbian and gay lives. Journal of Rural Studies, 11, — Black, K. Out in the mountains: Exploring gay and lesbian lives. Law Eds. Bolzendahl, C. Feminist attitudes and support for gender equality: Opinion change in women and men, — Social Forces, 83, — Boulden, W. Gay men living in a rural environment.

Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services 12, 63— Brooks, V. Minority stress and lesbian women. Lexington, KY: Lexington Press. Show a movie. Share a TV show. Swank makes it easy. From licensing to content to promoting your event, we create extraordinary experiences wherever your audiences may be.

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